North Kainantu
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
The North Kainantu family is comprised of perhaps five closely related languages spoken in the Kainantu subdistrict of Papua New Guinea's Eastern Highlands province.
Subclassification
The internal classification of North Kainantu is as follows:
North Kainantu
Agarabi
Kambaira
Gadsup
Oyana
Ontena
Akuna-Tompena
The differences between Gadsup of Ontena and that of Akuna may or may not be significant enough to warrant considering Ontena a separate language. The placement of Oyana above is based upon Wurm (1961: 20-23, 1971: 551-557,) McKaughan (1964: 99-101, 1973: xvi, 403, 695-698, 699) and Frantz (1976: 75,) as no Oyana data is available to us at this time. According to Frantz, Oyana is the most divergent of Gadsup's three major dialects. McKaughan calculates an 84.7-85.7% lexicostatistical relationship between Oyana and Akuna-Tompena.
Sources
Chinnery (1934: 118) 81 terms from Ramu River natives (Agarabi)
Capell (1948-1949: 111-114) pronouns and (pp, 350-354) 122 comparative terms for Agárabi and Gadsup
Frantz and Frantz (1962) dictionary of Akuna
Frantz (1962: 44-63) nominal morphology of Akuna, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 424-438)
Frantz and McKaughan (1964: 84-99) final verb morphology of Akuna, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 439-449)
McKaughan (1964: 98-121) 546 comparative terms for Gadsup of Okuna village, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 694-738)
Bee (1965: 1-37) 64 Gadsup words and 45 Agarabi words including reflexes of proto-Kainantu, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 739-768)
Frantz and Frantz (1966: 1-11) phonology of Akuna of Ommomunta village, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 406-413)
McKaughan, compiler (1973: 469-512) Gadsup texts from Aiyura village
Frantz (1974) Gadsup nominal phrases, reformatted as Frantz (2007)
Frantz (1976) sentence structure of Akuna of Wopepa and Amomonta villages
Kerr (1973: 776-795) 29 Gadsup kin terms and 28 Agarabi kin terms including reflexes of proto-Kainantu
Frantz (1994) sketch phonology of Gadsup of Ontena village, recapitulated in an undated and unattributed manuscript from Summer Institute of Linguistics, Ukarumpa
Frantz (1995) sketch phonology of Akuna
Goddard and Luff (1962) Agarabi final verbs (unobtained)
Goddard and Luff (1962) phonology of Agarabi (unobtained)
Goddard (1967: 1-25) narratives from Agarabi of Punano village, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 450-468)
Bee, Luff and Goddard (1973: 414-423) phonology of Agarabi, based upon Goddard and Luff (1962)
Goddard (1974: 75-118) grammar of Agarabi of Punano, reprinted as thesis (1977) and as Goddard (1980: 35-76)
Goddard (1976: 5-72) grammar of Agarabi of Punano
Goddard and Luff (1988) small vocabulary of Agarabi
Harlow (1992) sketch phonology of Agarabi (unobtained)
Olson (1991) sketch phonology of Agarabi (unobtained)
Olson and Olson (2002) sketch phonology of Bare (Agarabi)
Vincent (n.d.) 97 terms for Kambaira
Historical phonology
Proto-North Kainantu had 8 consonants and 6 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | |
*p | *t | *s |
*w | *ɾ | *j |
*i | *u | |
*e: | *ɐ | *o: |
*ɑ: |
In addition to the simple vowels above, at least ttree and perhaps four diphthongs occur:
*ɐⁱ | *ɐᵘ |
[*o:ⁱ] | |
*ɑ:ⁱ |
There are four reasons that apical stop /*t/ is reconstructed rather than velar /*k/ in accord with its most common reflex (below): 1) it continues Kainantu and West Kainantu /*t/, not /*k/ which didn't exist in West Kainantu, 2) it is lenited intervocalically to [ɾ] in Agarabi, although Agarabi's initial reflex is [k], 3) Kambaira's glottalization of /*t/ to /ʔ/ is shared with Afaqina (Binumarien) to the northeast, 4) Gadsup's development to /k/ is shared with the Central Kainantu languages to the southwest. It is easier to explain these as areally-propagated changes which occured some time after the breakup of proto-North Kainantu.
This in turn motivates the reconstruction of laminal /*s/, which continues Kainantu and West Kainantu /*s/, rather than /*t/, although either might be defensible with reference to North Kainantu alone.
Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ does not occur initially. Otherwise, any consonant can occur initially or medially.
Only a restricted set of consonants occurs finally. Finals /*N/ and /*ʔ/ are archiphonemes resulting from the conflation of nasals and stops respectively in final position:
*N | |
*ʔ | |
*ɾ | *j |
Free nominals are almost always though not invariably appended with an article /*-mi/, which reflects Kainantu demonstrative /*mi/ “that.” The quality of the root-final consonant is most usually discerned indirectly through its effects upon the realization of the article (below) and other suffixes.
Medial clusters are attested as follows, where the previous syllable terminates in one of two archiphonemes /*N *ʔ/:
[under construction]
*m | *n | *p | *t | *s | *w | *ɾ | *j | |
*N | — | — | *Np | *Nt | *Ns | |||
*ʔ | ? | *ʔn | *ʔp | *ʔt | *ʔs | *ʔw | *ʔj |
Word-initial consonants correspond as follows:
N. Kai. | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | ||||
phonemic | phonetic | phonemic | phonetic | phonemic | phonetic | phonemic | phonetic | |
*m₁- | m | m | m | m | m | m | m | m |
*m₂- | w | b bʷ w | ? | ? | m | m | m | m |
*n- | n | n | n | n | n | n | n | n |
*p- | p | pʰ ɸ | p | p ɸ | p | p pɸ ɸ | p | ɸ |
*t- | k | kʰ | ʔ | ø | k | k kx | k | x |
*s- | t | tʰ ts s | t | ? | t | t ts s | t | s |
*w- | w | b bʷ w | β | <b> | β | b bβ β | β | β |
*j- | j | d dʲ j | k | k | j | j | j | j |
Intervocalic consonants, whether root-medial or root-initial following a prefix, correspond as follows:
N. Kai. | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | ||||
phonemic | phonetic | phonemic | phonetic | phonemic | phonetic | phonemic | phonetic | |
*-m- | m | m | m | m | m | m | m | m |
*-n- | n | n | n | n | n | n | n | n |
*-p- | p | ɸ | p | ɸ | p | ɸ | p | ɸ |
*-t- | ɾ | ɾ | ʔ | ʔ | k | x | k | x |
*-s- | t | s | t | s | t | s ts | t | s |
*-w- | w | β βʷ w | β | <b> | β | β | β | β |
*-ɾ- | ɾ | ɾ r | ɾ | <r> | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ |
*-j- | j | j | k | k | j | j | j | j |
Medial consonant clusters with syllable-final nasal /*N/ correspond as follows:
N. Kai. | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | ||||
phonemic | phonetic | phonemic | phonetic | phonemic | phonetic | phonemic | phonetic | |
*-Np- | mp | mpʰ | mp | ʔp | ʔp | |||
*-Nt- | ŋk | ŋkʰ | ŋk | ŋk | ʔk | |||
*-Ns- | nt | ntʰ | nt | nt | ||||
*-Nw- | ||||||||
*-Nɾ- | n | nd | ||||||
*-Nj- | n | nd | n |
Medial consonant clusters with syllable-final stop /*ʔ/ correspond as follows:
N. Kai. | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | ||||
phonemic | phonetic | phonemic | phonetic | phonemic | phonetic | phonemic | phonetic | |
*-ʔn- | ʔn | ʔn | ʔn | |||||
*-ʔp- | p | ɸ | ʔp | ʔp | ʔp | ʔp | ||
*-ʔt- | ʔk | ʔkʰ | ʔ | ʔ | k | |||
*-ʔs- | ʔt | ʔtʰ | ||||||
*-ʔw- | ʔβ | ʔβ | ʔβ | |||||
*-ʔɾ- | ||||||||
*-ʔj- | k |
Correspondences between final consonants are illustrated here by their effects upon the realization of the postposed nominal article /*-mi/:
N. Kai. | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena |
*-V | V-ø | V-mi | V-i | V-mi |
*-i | i-ø | i-mi | i-ø | |
*-VN | Ṽ-ø | V-mi | V-mi | V-mi |
*-Vʔ | Vʔ-ø | Vʔ-i | Vʔ-i | Vʔ-i |
*-Vɾ | Ṽ-ø | V-ndi | V(n)-ni | V-nti |
*-Vj | V-ø | V-ndi | V-ni | V-mi |
Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:
N. Kai. | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena |
*i | i | i | i | i |
*u | u | u | u | u |
*ɐ | ɐ | ɐ | ɐ | ɐ |
*e: | e: | e: | e: | e: |
*o: | o: | o: | o: | o: |
*ɑ: | ɑ: | a: | a: | a: |
*ɐⁱ | ɐⁱ | ɐ | ɐⁱ | |
*ɐᵘ | o: | ɐᵘ | o: | ɐᵘ |
*o:ⁱ | e: | ? | e: | ? |
*ɑ:ⁱ | ɑ: | ? | a: | a: |
*u/ɐ-_ | u | u | o: | |
*ɐ/ɐ-_ | ɐ | a: |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Agarabi attestations drawn from Goddard and Luff (Bee, Luff and Goddard 1973: 414-423, Goddard 1973: 450-468, Bee 1973: 745-759, Goddard 1974 ibid., 1976 ibid., Goddard and Luff 1988 ibid.) or from Olson and Olson (2002) unless otherwise indicated; those drawn from Capell (1948-1949: 350-354) and Chinnery (1934: 118) are indicated with the bracketed comments [ac] and [ec] respectively. Akuna attestations are from Frantz and Frantz (1962, 1973: 406-413, Frantz, 1973: 424-438, Frantz 1974 ibid., 2007 ibid.) and from McKaughan (1973: 721-738,) Ontena from Frantz (1994, n.d. after Frantz) and Kaimbaira from Vincent (n.d.) Agarabi and Akuna kin terms drawn from Kerr (1973: 776-795) are indicated with the bracketed comment [hk].
Olson and Olson's (2002) Bare (Agarabi) orthography has been standardized in accordance with the phonology set forth by Bee, Luff and Goddard (1973: 414-423,) such that simple and preglottalized medial stops are shown as /p t k ʔp ʔt ʔk/ as rather than as <f s x p t k>, while glottal stop is shown as /ʔ/ rather than as Olson and Olson's acute accent or as Goddard and Luff's <h>. Neither Frantz's (1994) Ontena orthography nor Vincent's Kambaira vocabulary distinguish mid central vowel /ɐ/ from long low vowel /a:/ (< /*ɑ:/,) both being written as <a>, although Frantz specifies that the phonemic difference exists in Ontena and gives some examples of each. Because Frantz and Frantz don't consistently indicate Akuna tone, while McKaughan doesn't indicate tone at all, tone is not included here.
As data for both Kambaira and Ontena is quite limited, gaps in attestation are not necessarily meaningful and aren't reliable guides for cognate frequencies.
Word-initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*m₁- | m | m | m | m | |
that | *mi[j] | mi | mi-ni | ||
snake | *me:mɐɾ | a-mema-ndi | me:mɐ-ni | memɐ-ni | |
hawk | *me:mo:ɾ | memo-ni | me:mo:-ni | ||
one | *mɐnɑ: | mɐnɑ: | mɐna: | mana | |
law/instruction | *mɑ:N | mɑ̃: | |||
house | *mɑ:ʔ | mɑ:ʔ | maʔ-i | ma:ʔ-i | |
father's sister | *mɑ:mu | mɑ:mu [hk] | ma:mu [hk] | ||
brother's wife | *… | mɑ:ti [hk] | make-mi | ma:ti [hk] |
In several examples, the Agarabi reflex of initial /*m/ is attested as [β]:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*m₂- | β | m | m | ||
earth/ground | *mɐtɐ | βɐɾɐ | mɐkɐ | maka-mi | |
earthquake | *mɐtuɾ | &n₂bsp;baruni:a [ac] | mɐku-ni | ||
village | *mɐtuj | βɐɾu- | mɐku-ni |
In one example, the reflexes of initial /*m/ and intervocalic /*w/ (below) appear to have confused one another, perhaps under the influence of North Tairora /βahaβeɾɐ/, in which /β/ is the regular reflex of /*m/:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*m- | m | m | β | β | |
fat/grease | *mɐsɐwe:N | mɐtɐmẽ: | masame-mi | βɐsɐpe:-mi | βasaβe-mi |
Word-initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*n- | n | n | n | n | |
mother's br. | *nɐᵘ | no:- [hk] | nɐᵘ-ni | ||
vine/rope | *nɐɾ | ɐ-nɐ̃ | nɐ-ni | ||
kunai grass | *nɐm[u]ʔ | nɐmiʔ-i | |||
sore | *nɐmo:N | namani | nɐmo:-mi | ||
enemy | *nɐmuto: | nɐmuɾo: | |||
coconut | *nɐwi[ɾ/j] | nɐβi-ni | |||
casuarina sp. | *nɐɾe:N | nɐɾe:-mi | |||
breast | *nɑ:N | nɑ̃: | na-mi | na:-mi | na-mi |
wife | *nɑ:ʔ | naʔ [hk] | naʔ-i | na:ʔ-i | |
grandfather | *nɑ:pu | nɑ:pu | na:pu [hk] | ||
son's wife | *nɑ:puʔ | nɑ:puʔ [hk] | na'ɸaʔ-i | na:puʔ-i | |
older sister | *nɑ:no: | nɑ:no:-ʔe: [hk] | na:no:-i | ||
blood | *nɑ:ɾe: | nɑ:ɾe: | na:ɾe:-i | ||
mother | *no: | ɐ-no:-ʔe: | no-ʔi-mi | no:-i | |
water | *no:N | nõ: | no:-mi | ||
duck sp. | *n[o:]tuN | nuku-mi | |||
bird | *nuN | nũ | nu-mi | nu-mi | nu-mi |
louse | *nuN | nũ | nu-mi | nu-mi |
Word-initial bilabial stop /*p/ is typically aspirated or fricated to [pʰ pɸ ɸ] in all descendants:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*p- | p [pʰ ɸ] | p [p ɸ] | p [p pɸ ɸ] | p [ɸ] | |
early/before | *pe:j | pe: | pe:-ni | ||
old (person) | *pe:jɐN | pe:jɐ̃ | pe:jɐ-mi | ||
younger brother | *pɐʔ | ɸaʔ-i | pɐʔ-i | ||
arrow sp. | *pɐto:ɾ | pɐko:-ni | ɸako | ||
father | *po: | ɐ-po:-ʔe: | ɸo-ʔi-mi | po:-i | |
pig | *po:ɾ | põ: | po-ndi | po:(n)-ni | ɸo-nti |
young man | *pumɑ:ɾɑ: | pumɑ:ɾɑ: | puma:ɾa: | ||
die | *put- | puɾ- | puk- | ɸuk- |
Word-initial apical stop /*t/ is backed to velar /k/ in Agarabi and in Akuna and Ontena, a change shared with the Central Kainantu languages to the southwest. The resulting velar /k/ is typically realized as aspirated or fricated [kʰ kx x] in these languages. In Kambaira, /*t/ is glottalized in both initial and medial postition (below) to /ʔ/, a change shared with Afaqina to the northeast:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*t- | k [kʰ] | ʔ [ø] | k [k kx] | k [x] | |
three | *tɐmo:ɾ[e:] | aβuɾi-mi | kɐmoɾe: | ||
tree kangaroo | *tɐ[ʔ]we:nɐC | aβena-mi | kɐβe:na-mi | kɐʔβe:na-nti | |
frog | *tɐw[ɐ][ɾ/j] | aβu-ndi | kɐβɐ-ni | ||
two | *tɑ:N | kɑ̃: | aŋ-ka-ndi | ka:n-tɐ-ni | |
son | *t[ɑ:]ʔ | ka [ac] | a-ʔa- | kɐʔ-i | |
grandmother | *tɑ:tɐ | aʔa-mi | ka:kɐ | ||
native bean | *to:ʔ | ko:ʔ-i | |||
cloud(s) | *to:nɐN | kona [ec] | ko:nɐ-mi | kona-mi | |
stone axe | *tuN | kũ | kun-tɐʔ-i | ||
fence | *tutuj | kuɾu | kuku-ni | ||
cook in vessel | *tuɾ- | kuɾ- | kuɾ- |
Word-initial laminal /*s/ has been reinterpreted as apical stop /t/ in at least Agarabi and Akuna, but still counts [ts s] alongside aspirated [tʰ] among its allophones:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*s- | t [tʰ ts s] | ? | t [t ts s] | ? | |
1 poss./obj. | *si- | ti- | ti- | ||
speak/say | *si- | ti | t- | ||
small | *siʔso:ʔ | ||||
flying fox sp. | *susuʔ | tutuʔ | tutuʔ-i |
Word-initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is typically occluded to [b bʷ β] in all descendants:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*w- | w [b bʷ w] | β | β [b bβ β] | β | |
ginger | *wiN | wĩ | βi-mi | ||
moon | *wi[ɾ]o:N | wijõ: | |||
rat | *wɐⁱ | βaⁱ-mi | βɐ-i | βɐⁱ | |
star | *wɐjɐᵘ | βɐjo: | |||
man | *wɑ:ⁱNsɐ | wɑ:ntɐ | βa:ntɐ | βanta-mi | |
older brother | *wɑ:(-wɐ) | wɑ:-ʔe: [hk] | βa-βa-mi | βa:-i | |
ghost | *wɑ:N | wɑ̃: | βa:-mi | ||
husband | *wɑ:pu | wɑ:pu | βaɸu-ni | βa:pu-i | |
fly (n.) | *wɑ:ʔ[s]iɾ | wɑ:tĩ | βa:ʔɾi-ni | ||
eel | *wɑ:ɾi[C] | wɑ:ɾĩ | βa:ʔɾi | ||
speech/word | *wɑ:jɑ:j | wɑ:jɑ: | βa:ja:-ni | ||
cassowary | *wuje:N | βuke-mi | βuje:-mi |
Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ does not occur initially.
Word-initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is retained as such in Agarabi, Akuna and Ontena. In Agarabi, it is often occluded to [d dʲ] (Bee, Luff and Goddard 1973: 420.) One would assume that its reflex in Kambaira would be velar stop /k/, as is that of medial /*j/ (below,) but Vincent gives no comparable examples of /*j/ in this position:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*j- | j [d dʲ j] | ? | j | j | |
taro | *jɐN | jɐ-mi | |||
ground oven | *jɐno:N | jɐnõ: | |||
sugarcane | *jɑ:ʔ | jɑ:ʔ-i | ja:ʔ-i | ||
tree | *jɑ:j | jɑ: | ja:-ni | ja-mi | |
dark | *juN | jũ | |||
food | *junɑ:N | junɑ̃: | juna:-mi |
Intervocalic bilabial nasal /*m/ is generally retained as such in all descendants. Unlike other Kainantu languages, there is no contrast here between simple medial /*m/ and cluster /*Nm/:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-m- | m | m | m | m | |
calf | *(ɐ-)[i]m[ɑ:ⁱ][ʔ]- | ɐ-ma:ʔ-i | |||
give | *(ɐ-)mi- | ɐ-mi- | ɐ-m- | ||
tail | *(ɐ-)me:j | ɐ-me: | a-me-ndi | ɐ-me:-ni | |
shadow/soul | *(ɐ-)mɐN | ɐ-mɐ-mi | |||
meat/flesh | *(ɐ-)mɐʔ | a-maʔ-i | ɐ-mɐʔ-i | ||
heart | *(ɐ-)mɑ:po:N | ɐ-mɑ:põ: | a-maɸo-mi | ||
chin/jaw | *(ɐ-)mɑ:ɾiɾ | i-mai-ndi | |||
throat | *(ɐ-)m[o:ⁱ]ɾ | ɐ-mẽ: | ɐ-me:-ni | ||
belly | *(ɐ-)muʔ | ɐ-muʔ | ɐ-muʔ-i | ||
daughter | *[i]ɾɑ:muN | ɾɑ:ũ [hk] [sic] | ɾa:mu-mi | ||
heavy | *umɐɾ | umɐ-ni | uma-nti | ||
theft/steal | *umo:ɾ | umo:jɐn- | umo:ɾ- | ||
snake | *me:mɐɾ | a-mema-ndi | me:mɐ-ni | memɐ-ni | |
hawk | *me:mo:ɾ | memo-ni | me:mo:-ni | ||
father's sister | *mɑ:mu | mɑ:mu [hk] | ma:mu [hk] | ||
young man | *pumɑ:ɾɑ: | pumɑ:ɾɑ: | puma:ɾa: | ||
kunai grass | *nɐm[u]ʔ | nɐmiʔ-i | |||
sore | *nɐmo:N | namani | nɐmo:-mi | ||
enemy | *nɐmuto: | nɐmuɾo: | |||
neck/nape | *num[ɐ] | i-numu-ka-mi |
In one example …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-m- | β | m | |||
three | *tɐmo:ɾ[e:] | aβuɾi-mi | kɐmoɾe: |
Intervocalic bilabial nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants. Unlike other Kainantu languages, there is no contrast here between simple medial /*n/ and cluster /*Nn/:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-n- | n | n | n | n | |
nest | *(ɐ-)nɑ:N | ɐ-na:-mi | a-na-mi | ||
root | *(ɐ-)nuʔ | ɐ-nuʔ-i | |||
neck/nape | *(ɐ-)num[ɐ] | i-numu-ka-mi | |||
pinkie | *e:ɾɐnɐ | eɾana-mi | e:ɾɐnɐ-i | ||
bamboo | *ɐnɐ | ɐnɐ | ɐnɐ | ||
leaf | *ɐnɑ: | ɐnɑ: | ɐna(:)-i | ||
woman | *ɐnɑ:si | ɐnɑ:ti | ɐna:ti | anasi | |
big/older | *ɐno:[ɾ/j] | ɐnõ: | ɐno:-ni | ||
mountain/hill | *ɐnu | ɐnu | ɐnu-i | ||
netbag | *unɑ:N | unɑ̃: | una:-mi | ||
one | *mɐnɑ: | mɐnɑ: | mɐna: | mana | |
older sister | *nɑ:no: | nɑ:no:-ʔe: [hk] | na:no:-i | ||
tree kangaroo | *tɐ[ʔ]we:nɐC | aβena-mi | kɐβe:na-mi | kɐʔβe:na-nti | |
cloud(s) | *to:nɐN | kona [ec] | ko:nɐ-mi | kona-mi | |
ground oven | *jɐno:N | jɐnõ: | |||
food | *junɑ:N | junɑ̃: | juna:-mi |
One example …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*[m/n]- | m | m | n | ||
tongue | *[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ | ɐ-mɑ:pĩ | i-maⁱɸi-ndi | ɐ-nɐpi-ni |
Intervocalic bilabial stop /*p/ is realized as fricative [ɸ] in all descendants:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-p- | p [ɸ] | p [ɸ] | p [ɸ] | p [ɸ] | |
in | *-piN | -pĩ | |||
penis | *(ɐ-)p[o:ⁱ] | a-fe [ec] | ɐ-pe: | ||
thumb | *(ɐ-)po:N | a-ɸo-mi | ɐ-po:-mi | ||
shoulder | *(ɐ-)puN | ɐ-pũ | a-ɸu-mi | ɐ-pu-mi | |
place | *-pɐʔ | -pɐʔ | -pɐʔ-i | ||
weeping/crying | *ipiʔ | iɸiʔ- [ac] | ipiʔ- | ||
white cockatoo | *e:pɐɾ | e:pɐ̃ | e:pɐ(n)-ni | ||
ripe | *ɐpu | ɐpu | ɐpu-i | ||
knot in wood | *ɐpu | ɐpu | ɐpu-i | ||
heart | *mɑ:po:N | ɐ-mɑ:põ: | a-maɸo-mi | ||
tongue | *[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ | ɐ-mɑ:pĩ | i-maⁱɸi-ndi | ɐ-nɐpi-ni | |
grandfather | *nɑ:pu | nɑ:pu | na:pu [hk] | ||
son's wife | *nɑ:puʔ | nɑ:puʔ [hk] | na'ɸaʔ-i | na:puʔ-i | |
husband | *wɑ:pu | wɑ:pu | βaɸu-ni | βa:pu-i |
Intervocalic apical stop /*t/ is backed to velar /k/ in Akuna and Ontena, where /k/ is realized as fricative [x]. but merged with /ɾ/ in Agarabi, in contrast to initial /*t/ which is backed to /k/ in all three (above.) Kambaira glottalizes /*t/ to / ʔ/ in both positions:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-t- | t [ɾ] | ʔ | k [x] | k [x] | |
at/on/upon | *-tɐʔ | -ɾɐʔ | -kɐʔ-i | ||
side | *(ɐ-)tɐᵘ | ɐ-ɾo: | ɐ-ko:-sɐʔ-i | ||
rib | *(ɐ-)tɐᵘ-j[ɑ:]N | a-ʔa-sa-mi | ɐ-ko:-jɐ-mi | ||
knee | *(ɐ-)tɐᵘN | ɐ-ɾõ: | |||
fruit | *(ɐ-)tɐN | ɐ-kɐ-mi | |||
leg | *(ɐ-)tɐɾ | ɐ-ɾɐ̃ | ɐ-kɐ(n)-ni | ||
spine | *(ɐ-)to:juN | ɐ-ko:ju-mi | a-koju-mi | ||
liver | *(ɐ-)tuN | a-ʔu-mi | ɐ-ku-mi | ||
thigh/root | *(ɐ-)tuʔ | ɐ-ɾuʔ | ɐ-kuʔ-i | ||
fire/firewood | *itɐ | iɾɐ | ikɐ-i | ika | |
brother-in-law | *ito: | iɾo: [hk] | ɐ-iʔo-mi | ko: [hk] | |
good | *ɐwo:tuʔ | aboru [ac] | ɐβo:kuʔ-i | ||
girl | *ɑ:tiNsɐ | ɑ:ɾintɐ | a:kintɐ-i | asika-mi [met.] | |
real/true | *utɐN | -ukɐ-mi | |||
earth/ground | *mɐtɐ | βɐɾɐ | mɐkɐ | maka-mi | |
earthquake | *mɐtuɾ | baruni:a [ac] | mɐku-ni | ||
village | *mɐtuj | βɐɾu- | mɐku-ni | ||
arrow sp. | *pɐto:ɾ | pɐko:-ni | ɸako | ||
die | *put- | puɾ- | puk- | ɸuk- | |
enemy | *nɐmuto: | nɐmuɾo: | |||
duck sp. | *n[o:]tuN | nuku-mi | |||
grandmother | *tɑ:tɐ | aʔa-mi | ka:kɐ | ||
fence | *tutuj | kuɾu | kuku-ni |
Intervocalic laminal /*s/ is retained as [s] in all descendants, even though it has been reinterpreted as an allophone of /t/:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-s- | t [s] | t [s] | t [s ts] | t [s] | |
nose | *(ɐ-)siʔ | ɐ-tiʔ | ɐ-siʔ-i | a-siʔ-i | |
bow | *isɐNɾɐ | itɐnɐ | isɐndɐ-i | ||
woman | *ɐnɑ:si | ɐnɑ:ti | anai (?) | ɐna:ti | anasi |
fat/grease | *mɐsɐwe:N | mɐtɐmẽ: | masame-mi | βɐsɐpe:-mi | βasaβe-mi |
flying fox sp. | *susuʔ | tutuʔ | tutuʔ-i |
Intervocalic bilabial non-stop /*w/ is typically occluded to [β βʷ] in all descendants:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-w- | w [β βʷ w] | β | β | β | |
urine | *(ɐ-)wi | ɐ-wi | ɐ-βi | ||
name | *(ɐ-)wiʔ | a-wiʔ | a-βiʔ-i | ɐ-βiʔ-i | a-βiʔ-i |
tooth | *(ɐ-)wɐj | i-βa-ndi | ɐ-βɐ-ni | a-βa-ja-mi | |
testicle(s) | *(ɐ-)wɑ:N-tɐN | a-wanka [ec] | |||
good | *ɐwo:tuʔ | aboru [ac] | ɐβo:kuʔ-i | ||
yam | *o:wɐ | o:wɐ | o:βɐ-i | ||
wind | *uw[ɑ:ⁱ] | uwɑ: | |||
coconut | *nɐwi[ɾ/j] | nɐβi-ni | |||
frog | *tɐw[ɐ][ɾ/j] | aβu-ndi | kɐβɐ-ni | ||
older brother | *wɑ:-wɐ | βa-βa-mi |
In one example …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-w- | m | m | β | β | |
fat/grease | *mɐsɐwe:N | mɐtɐmẽ: | masame-mi | βɐsɐpe:-mi [sic] | βasaβe-mi |
In one example known to correspond to Central and South Kainantu /*ɐᵘwɐjɐN/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-wɐj- | j | β | |||
new/raw | *ɐᵘwɐjɐN | o:ẽ: ≈ ɐᵘjẽ: | o:jɐ-mi | ɐᵘβe-mi |
Intervocalic apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-ɾ- | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | |
daughter | *[i]ɾɑ:muN | ɾɑ:ũ [hk] | ɾa:mu-mi | ||
pinkie | *e:ɾɐnɐ | eɾana-mi | e:ɾɐnɐ-i | ||
year | *[ɐᵘ]ɾ[ɐ]nɾ[e:] | o:ɾe:nɐ- | o:ɾɐnde: | ||
excrement | *ɐɾɐ | ɐɾɐ | ɐɾɐ- | ||
intestines | *ɐɾɐʔ | ɐɾɐʔ | ɐɾɐʔ-i | aɾaʔ-i | |
hit/fight/kill | *ɐɾu- | ɐɾu- | ɐɾ- | ||
pitpit sp. | *uɾɑ: | uɾɑ: | uɾa(:)-i | ||
chin/jaw | *mɑ:ɾiɾ | i-mai-ndi | |||
young man | *pumɑ:ɾɑ: | pumɑ:ɾɑ: | puma:ɾa: | ||
casuarina sp. | *nɐɾe:N | nɐɾe:-mi | |||
blood | *nɑ:ɾe: | nɑ:ɾe: | na:ɾe:-i | ||
three | *tɐmo:ɾ[e:] | aβuɾi-mi | kɐmoɾe: | ||
cook in vessel | *tuɾ- | kuɾ- | kuɾ- | ||
eel | *wɑ:ɾi[C] | wɑ:ɾĩ | βa:ʔɾi |
In one example, …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-ɾ- | j | ɾ | |||
moon | *wi[ɾ]o:N | wijõ: |
Intervocalic palatal non-stop /*j/ is occluded to velar stop /k/ in Kambaira, a change shared with North Tairora to the south:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-j- | j | k | j | j | |
hair/feather | *(ɐ-)jɐᵘ | ɐ-jo: | (ʔi)-kaᵘ-mi | (ɐ)-jo:-i | ɐ-jaᵘ-mi |
bone | *(ɐ-)jɐNpɐ | ɐ-jɐmpɐ | ɐ-jɐmpɐ-i | a-japa-mi | |
arm/hand | *(ɐ-)jɑ:N | i-ka-mi | ɐ-ja:-mi | ||
seed/seedling | *(ɐ-)juN | ɐ-jũ | ɐ-ju-mi | ||
dog | *ijɐN | ijɐ̃ | ika-mi | ijɐ-mi | ijɐ-mi |
cold | *ijo:[N] | ijõ: | ijono-mi | ||
areca nit | *iju-i | iju-i | |||
yes | *e:[j]o: | e:jo: | e:jo: | ||
sand | *e:ju | e:ju | e:u-i | ||
long/tall | *ɐjɑ:ʔ | ɐjɑ:ʔ | ija:ʔ-i | ||
cloud | *ɐjo:[ɾ/j] | ɐjõ: | ɐjo-ni | ||
marsupial sp. | *[ɐᵘ/o:]ji | o:ji | o:ji | ||
old (person) | *pe:jɐN | pe:jɐ̃ | pe:jɐ-mi | ||
spine | *to:juN | ɐ-ko:ju-mi | a-koju-mi | ||
star | *wɐjɐᵘ | βɐjo: | |||
speech/word | *wɑ:jɑ:j | wɑ:jɑ: | βa:ja:-ni | ||
cassowary | *wuje:N | βuke-mi | βuje:-mi |
… medial consonant clusters with syllable-final nasal /*N/ …:
Kainantu clusters /*Nm *Nn/ are no longer contrastive in any North Kainantu language, having been merged with the reflexes of simple medial nasals /*m *n/ (above.)
… /*Np/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-Np- | mp [mpʰ] | mp | ʔp [p] | ||
boy | *ijɐN-po:ɾ | ijɐm-põ: | |||
bone | *jɐNpɐ | ɐ-jɐmpɐ | ɐ-jɐmpɐ-i | a-japa-mi |
… /*Nt/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-Nt- | ŋk [ŋkʰ] | ŋk | ŋk | ||
navel | *[ɐ]ʔwɐᵘN-tuN | i-ʔβɐᵘŋ-ku-mi | ɐ-ʔβɐŋ-ku-mi | ||
testicle(s) | *wɑ:N-tɐN | a-wanka [ec] |
… /*Ns/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-Ns- | nt [ntʰ] | nt | nt | ||
man | *wɑ:ⁱNsɐ | wɑ:ntɐ | βa:ntɐ | βanta-mi |
In one example …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-Ns-/*-Nt- | |||||
girl | *ɑ:tiNsɐ | ɑ:ɾintɐ | a:kintɐ-i | asika-mi [met.] |
One loan from Markham River is attested with an irregular reflex in Akuna:
[ex-Markham] | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-Ns- | nt [ntʰ] | s | s | ||
metal axe | *sɑ:NsuN | tɑ:ntũ | sɐsu | sasu |
… /*Nw/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena |
*-Nw- | ||||
*… |
… /*Nɾ/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-Nɾ- | n | nd | |||
bow | *isɐNɾɐ | itɐnɐ | isɐndɐ-i | ||
year | *[ɐᵘ]ɾ[ɐ]nɾ[e:] | o:ɾe:nɐ- | o:ɾɐnde: |
… /*Nj/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-Nj- | n | nd | n | ||
door | *o:Njɐ | o:nɐ | ondi-mi | o:nɐ |
… medial consonant clusters with syllable-final stop /*ʔ/ …:
No examples of preglottalized bilabial nasal /*ʔm/ have been found. Where final /ʔ/ is followed by the nominal article /*mi/, /*m/ is dropped in all descendants (below,) but it's not known if this would occur within roots.
Preglottalized apical nasal /*ʔn/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-ʔn- | ʔn | ʔn | ʔn | ||
bowstring | *iʔnɑ:N | itna [ac] | iʔna:-mi | ||
head | *ɐʔno:N | ɐʔnõ: | a:ʔno:-mi | aʔno-mi |
Preglottalized bilabial stop /*ʔp/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-ʔp- | p [ɸ] | ʔp | |||
armpit | *ɑ:ʔpe:[N/ɾ] | -a'ɸendi | a:ʔpe:-mi |
Preglottalized apical stop /*ʔt/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-ʔt- | ʔk | ʔ | ʔk [ʔk k] | ||
smoke | *iʔtu[ɾ/j] | iʔkũ | iʔku-ni | ||
ear | *ɑ:ʔ-tɐN | i-aʔa-mi | a:kɐ-mi |
Preglottalized laminal /*ʔs/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-ʔs- | ʔt [t] | ʔɾ | |||
small | *siʔso:ʔ | ||||
fly (n.) | *wɑ:ʔ[s]iɾ | wɑ:tĩ | βa:ʔɾi-ni |
Preglottalized bilabial non-stop /*ʔw/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-ʔw- | ʔw [ʔb ʔbʷ ʔw] | ʔβ | ʔβ [ʔb ʔβ] | ||
navel | *[ɐ]ʔwɐᵘN | ɐ-ʔwõ: | i-ʔβɐᵘŋ-ku-mi | ɐ-ʔβɐŋ-ku-mi |
Preglottalized apical non-stop /ʔɾ/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena |
*-ʔɾ- | ||||
*… |
Preglottalized palatal non-stop /*ʔj/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena |
*-ʔj- | ||||
*… |
Correspondences between final consonants are illustrated here by their effects upon the realization of the postposed nominal article /*-mi/, reflecting Kainantu demonstrative /*mi/ “that.” This article does not always appear, either because the nominal root is the first member of a compound, has been suffixed with something else (e.g. some Agarabi kin terms) or it is simply absent in the attested form for unknown syntactical reasons.
Following roots with a final vowel, article /*mi/ is reduced to /i/ in Akuna and dropped altogether in Agarabi:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-V-mi | V-ø | V-mi | V-i | V-mi | |
fire/firewood | *itɐ | iɾɐ | ikɐ-i | ika | |
brother-in-law | *ito: | iɾo: [hk] | ɐ-iʔo-mi | ko: [hk] | |
bow | *isɐNɾɐ | itɐnɐ | isɐndɐ-i | ||
areca nit | *iju-i | iju-i | |||
pinkie | *e:ɾɐnɐ | eɾana-mi | e:ɾɐnɐ-i | ||
sand | *e:ju | e:ju | e:u-i | ||
ripe | *ɐpu | ɐpu | ɐpu-i | ||
bamboo | *ɐnɐ | ɐnɐ | ɐnɐ | ||
leaf | *ɐnɑ: | ɐnɑ: | ɐna(:)-i | ||
mountain/hill | *ɐnu | ɐnu | ɐnu-i | ||
excrement | *ɐɾɐ | ɐɾɐ | ɐɾɐ-i | ||
girl | *ɑ:tiNsɐ | ɑ:ɾintɐ | a:kintɐ-i | asika-mi | |
yam | *o:wɐ | o:wɐ | o:βɐ-i | ||
door | *o:Njɐ | o:nɐ | ondi-mi | o:nɐ | |
body/skin | *u | ɐ-u | o:-i | ||
eye | *u | ɐ-u | |||
wind | *uw[ɑ:ⁱ] | uwɑ: | |||
pitpit sp. | *uɾɑ: | uɾɑ: | uɾa(:)-i | ||
earth/ground | *mɐtɐ | βɐɾɐ | mɐkɐ | maka-mi | |
father | *po: | ɐ-po:-ʔe: | ɸo-ʔi-mi | po:-i | |
penis | *p[o:ⁱ] | a-fe [ec] | ɐ-pe: | ||
young man | *pumɑ:ɾɑ: | pumɑ:ɾɑ: | puma:ɾa: | ||
enemy | *nɐmuto: | nɐmuɾo: | |||
grandfather | *nɑ:pu | nɑ:pu | na:pu [hk] | ||
older sister | *nɑ:no: | nɑ:no:-ʔe: [hk] | na:no:-i | ||
blood | *nɑ:ɾe: | nɑ:ɾe: | na:ɾe:-i | ||
mother | *no: | ɐ-no:-ʔe: | no-ʔi-mi | no:-i | |
grandmother | *tɑ:tɐ | aʔa-mi | ka:kɐ | ||
urine | *wi | ɐ-wi | ɐ-βi | ||
rat | *wɐⁱ | βaⁱ-mi | βɐ-i | βɐⁱ | |
star | *wɐjɐᵘ | βɐjo: | |||
man | *wɑ:ⁱNsɐ | wɑ:ntɐ | βa:ntɐ-ø | βanta-mi | |
older brother | *wɑ:(-wɐ) | wɑ:-ʔe: [hk] | βa-βa-mi | βa:-i | |
husband | *wɑ:pu | wɑ:pu | βaɸu-ni [sic] | βa:pu-i | |
hair/feather | *jɐᵘ | ɐ-jo: | (ʔi)-kaᵘ-mi | (ɐ)-jo:-i | ɐ-jaᵘ-mi |
bone | *jɐNpɐ | ɐ-jɐmpɐ | ɐ-jɐmpɐ-i | a-japa-mi |
When the final vowel of the root is high front /*i/, the reflex of /*mi/ is dropped in Akuna as well as in Agarabi:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-i-mi | i-ø | V-mi | i-ø | ||
marsupial sp. | *[ɐᵘ/o:]ji | o:ji | o:ji | ||
brother's wife | *… | mɑ:ti [hk] | make-mi | ma:ti [hk] | |
urine | *wi | ɐ-wi | ɐ-βi |
One example …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-i-mi | i-ø | i-ø | i-ø | i-ø | |
woman | *ɐnɑ:si | ɐnɑ:ti | anai | ɐna:ti | anasi |
Some vowel-final roots aren't attested with articles because they're not nominals:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-V-ø | V-ø | ? | V-ø | V-ø | |
other | *e:[ɾ]nɐ | e:nɐ | e:(n)nɐ | ||
yes | *e:[j]o: | e:jo: | e:jo: | ||
one | *mɐnɑ: | mɐnɑ: | mɐna: | mana |
Final nasal archiphoneme /*N/ is discernible in Agarabi by the nasalization of the preceding vowel and in Kambaira, Akuna and Ontena by the retention of the article /*mi/ as such:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-VN-mi | Ṽ-ø | V-mi | V-mi | V-mi | |
pandanus | *iN | ĩ | i-mi | ||
bowstring | *iʔnɑ:N | itna [ac] | iʔna:-mi | ||
daughter | *[i]ɾɑ:muN | ɾɑ:ũ [hk] | ɾa:mu-mi | ||
dog | *ijɐN | ijɐ̃ | ika-mi | ijɐ-mi | ijɐ-mi |
joint | *ɐᵘN | o:-mi | |||
new/raw | *ɐᵘwɐjɐN | o:ẽ: ≈ ɐᵘjẽ: | o:jɐ-mi | ɐᵘβe-mi | |
head | *ɐʔno:N | ɐʔnõ: | a:ʔno:-mi | aʔno-mi | |
navel | *[ɐ]ʔwɐᵘN | ɐ-ʔwõ: | i-ʔβɐᵘŋ- | ɐ-ʔβɐŋ- | |
ear | *ɑ:ʔ-tɐN | i-aʔa-mi | a:kɐ-mi | ||
pitpit sp. | *o:N | õ: | o:-mi | ||
stone file | *uN | ũ | u-mi | ||
younger sister | *uN | a-u-mi | o:-mi [hk] | ||
netbag | *unɑ:N | unɑ̃: | una:-mi | ||
real/true | *utɐN | -ukɐ-mi | |||
shadow/soul | *mɐN | ɐ-mɐ-mi | |||
fat/grease | *mɐsɐwe:N | mɐtɐmẽ: | masame-mi | βɐsɐpe:-mi | βasaβe-mi |
law/instruction | *mɑ:N | mɑ̃: | |||
heart | *mɑ:po:N | ɐ-mɑ:põ: | a-maɸo-mi | ||
in | *-piN | -pĩ | |||
old (person) | *pe:jɐN | pe:jɐ̃ | pe:jɐ-mi | ||
thumb | *po:N | a-ɸo-mi | ɐ-po:-mi | ||
shoulder | *puN | ɐ-pũ | a-ɸu-mi | ɐ-pu-mi | |
sore | *nɐmo:N | namani [sic] | nɐmo:-mi | ||
casuarina sp. | *nɐɾe:N | nɐɾe:-mi | |||
breast | *nɑ:N | nɑ̃: | na-mi | na:-mi | na-mi |
nest | *nɑ:N | ɐ-na:-mi | a-na-mi | ||
water | *no:N | nõ: | no:-mi | ||
duck sp. | *n[o:]tuN | nuku-mi | |||
bird | *nuN | nũ | nu-mi | nu-mi | nu-mi |
louse | *nuN | nũ | nu-mi | nu-mi | |
rib | *tɐᵘ-j[ɑ:]N | a-ʔa-sa-mi | ɐ-ko:-jɐ-mi | ||
knee | *tɐᵘN | ɐ-ɾõ: | |||
fruit | *tɐN | ɐ-kɐ-mi | |||
two | *tɑ:N | kɑ̃: | aŋ- | ka:n- | |
cloud(s) | *to:nɐN | kona [ec] | ko:nɐ-mi | kona-mi | |
spine | *to:juN | ɐ-ko:ju-mi | a-koju-mi | ||
stone axe | *tuN | kũ | kun- | ||
liver | *tuN | a-ʔu-mi | ɐ-ku-mi | ||
poison/illness | *wiN | ɐ-βĩ | βi-mi | ||
ginger | *wiN | wĩ | βi-mi | ||
moon | *wi[ɾ]o:N | wijõ: | |||
ghost | *wɑ:N | wɑ̃: | βa:-mi | ||
testicle(s) | *wɑ:N-tɐN | a-wanka [ec] | |||
cassowary | *wuje:N | βuke-mi | βuje:-mi | ||
taro | *jɐN | jɐ-mi | |||
ground oven | *jɐno:N | jɐnõ: | |||
arm/hand | *jɑ:N | i-ka-mi | ɐ-ja:-mi | ||
dark | *juN | jũ | |||
seed/seedling | *juN | ɐ-jũ | ɐ-ju-mi | ||
food | *junɑ:N | junɑ̃: | juna:-mi |
Final stop archiphoneme /*ʔ/ is retained as such in all descendants, with article /*mi/ reduced to /i/ in Kambaira, Akuna and Ontena and dropped in Agarabi:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-Vʔ -mi | Vʔ-ø | Vʔ-i | Vʔ-i | Vʔ-i | |
song | *iʔ | iʔ | iʔ-i | ||
alienable | *-iʔ | -iʔ | -iʔ | ||
weeping/crying | *ipiʔ | iɸiʔ- [ac] | ipiʔ- | ||
banana | *e:ʔ | e:ʔ-i | |||
good | *ɐwo:tuʔ | aboru [ac] | ɐβo:kuʔ-i | ||
intestines | *ɐɾɐʔ | ɐɾɐʔ | ɐɾɐʔ-i | aɾaʔ-i | |
long/tall | *ɐjɑ:ʔ | ɐjɑ:ʔ | ija:ʔ-i | ||
rain | *ɑ:ʔ | ɑ:ʔ | a:ʔ-i | ||
bush/grassland | *uʔ | uʔ | uʔ-pɐʔ-i | ||
meat/flesh | *mɐʔ | a-maʔ-i | ɐ-mɐʔ-i | ||
house | *mɑ:ʔ | mɑ:ʔ | maʔ-i | ma:ʔ-i | |
belly | *muʔ | ɐ-muʔ | ɐ-muʔ-i | ||
younger brother | *pɐʔ | ɸaʔ-i | pɐʔ-i | ||
place | *-pɐʔ | -pɐʔ | -pɐʔ-i | ||
kunai grass | *nɐm[u]ʔ | nɐmiʔ-i | |||
wife | *nɑ:ʔ | naʔ [hk] | naʔ-i | na:ʔ-i | |
son's wife | *nɑ:puʔ | nɑ:puʔ [hk] | na'ɸaʔ-i | na:puʔ-i | |
root | *nuʔ | ɐ-nuʔ-i | |||
at/on/upon | *-tɐʔ | -ɾɐʔ | -kɐʔ-i | ||
son | *t[ɑ:]ʔ | ka [ac] | a-ʔa- | kɐʔ-i | |
native bean | *to:ʔ | ko:ʔ-i | |||
thigh/root | *tuʔ | ɐ-ɾuʔ | ɐ-kuʔ-i | ||
nose | *siʔ | ɐ-tiʔ | ɐ-siʔ-i | a-siʔ-i | |
small | *siʔso:ʔ | ||||
flying fox sp. | *susuʔ | tutuʔ | tutuʔ-i | ||
name | *wiʔ | a-wiʔ | a-βiʔ-i | ɐ-βiʔ-i | a-βiʔ-i |
sugarcane | *jɑ:ʔ | jɑ:ʔ-i | ja:ʔ-i |
Final apical non-stop /*ɾ/ … Gadsup's underlying nominal finals are specified for a handful of terms in Franz (1962, 1973: 425-427.) The presumably geminated segment <nn> is distinguished only from /n/ in Frantz (1974, 2007,) in which its phonological value is not specified:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-Vɾ-mi | Ṽ-ø | V-ndi | V(n)-ni | V-nti ≈ -ni | |
worm | *iɾ | i-ni | |||
white cockatoo | *e:pɐɾ | e:pɐ̃ | e:pɐ(n)-ni [e:pɐɾ] | ||
egg | *uɾ | a-u-ndi | |||
heavy | *umɐɾ | umɐ-ni | uma-nti | ||
snake | *me:mɐɾ | a-mema-ndi | me:mɐ-ni | memɐ-ni | |
hawk | *me:mo:ɾ | memo-ni | me:mo:-ni | ||
earthquake | *mɐtuɾ | baruni:a [ac] | mɐku-ni | ||
chin/jaw | *mɑ:ɾiɾ | i-mai-ndi | |||
throat | *m[o:ⁱ]ɾ | ɐ-mẽ: | ɐ-me:-ni | ||
tongue | *[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ | ɐ-mɑ:pĩ | i-maⁱɸi-ndi | ɐ-nɐpi-ni | |
arrow sp. | *pɐto:ɾ | pɐko:-ni | ɸako | ||
pig | *po:ɾ | põ: | po-ndi | po:(n)-ni [po:ɾ] | ɸo-nti |
vine/rope | *nɐɾ | ɐ-nɐ̃ | nɐ-ni [nɐɾ] | ||
leg | *(ɐ-)tɐɾ | ɐ-ɾɐ̃ | ɐ-kɐ(n)-ni | ||
fly (n.) | *wɑ:ʔ[s]iɾ | wɑ:tĩ | βa:ʔɾi-ni |
These reflexes, as well as Akuna's general cross-morpheme cluster rules, make it clear that final /*ɾ/ had a nasal component, perhaps similar to Tairora's and Waffa's nasal flap /n̆/. There are … reasons this is reconstructed here as /*ɾ/, rather than as final apical nasal /*n/: ….
Final palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-Vj-mi | V-ø | V-ndi | V-ni | V-mi | |
path | *ɑ:j | a [ac] | a:-ni | a-mi | |
tail | *me:j | ɐ-me: | a-me-ndi | ɐ-me:-ni | |
village | *mɐtuj | βɐɾu- | mɐku-ni | ||
early/before | *pe:j | pe: | pe:-ni | ||
fence | *tutuj | kuɾu | kuku-ni | ||
tooth | *wɐj | i-βa-ndi | ɐ-βɐ-ni | ||
tree | *jɑ:j | jɑ: | ja:-ni | ja-mi | |
speech/word | *wɑ:jɑ:j | wɑ:jɑ: | βa:ja:-ni |
…:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*-… | |||||
stone | *o:[ɾ/j] | õ: | o:-ni [o:j] | ||
snake | *me:mɐɾ | a-mema-ndi | me:mɐ-ni [me:mɐj] | memɐ-ni |
The simple vowels are generally retained as such in all descendants:
High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in all descendants:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*i | i | i | i | i | |
pandanus | *iN | ĩ | i-mi | ||
song | *iʔ | iʔ | iʔ-i | ||
alienable | *-iʔ | -iʔ | -iʔ | ||
weeping/crying | *ipiʔ | iɸiʔ- [ac] | ipiʔ- | ||
bowstring | *iʔnɑ:N | itna [ac] | iʔna:-mi | ||
fire/firewood | *itɐ | iɾɐ | ikɐ-i | ika | |
brother-in-law | *ito: | iɾo: [hk] | ɐ-iʔo-mi | ko: [hk] | |
smoke | *iʔtu[ɾ/j] | iʔkũ | iʔku-ni | ||
bow | *isɐNɾɐ | itɐnɐ | isɐndɐ-i | ||
dog | *ijɐN | ijɐ̃ | ika-mi | ijɐ-mi | ijɐ-mi |
cold | *ijo:[N] | ijõ: | ijono-mi | ||
areca nit | *iju-i | iju-i | |||
woman | *ɐnɑ:si | ɐnɑ:ti | anai | ɐna:ti | anasi |
girl | *ɑ:tiNsɐ | ɑ:ɾintɐ | a:kintɐ-i | asika-mi | |
marsupial sp. | *[ɐᵘ/o:]ji | o:ji | o:ji | ||
that | *mi[j] | mi | mi-ni | ||
brother's wife | *… | mɑ:ti [hk] | make-mi [sic] | ma:ti [hk] | |
chin/jaw | *mɑ:ɾiɾ | i-mai-ndi | |||
tongue | *[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ | ɐ-mɑ:pĩ | i-maⁱɸi-ndi | ɐ-nɐpi-ni | |
in | *-piN | -pĩ | |||
coconut | *nɐwi[ɾ/j] | nɐβi-ni | |||
1 obj./poss. | *si- | ti- | ti- | ||
nose | *siʔ | ɐ-tiʔ | ɐ-siʔ-i | a-siʔ-i | |
small | *siʔso:ʔ | ||||
poison/illness | *wi(N) | ɐ-βi/ɐ-βĩ | βi-mi | ||
poison/illness | *wi(N) | ɐ-βi/ɐ-βĩ | βi-mi | ||
ginger | *wiN | wĩ | βi-mi | ||
name | *wiʔ | a-wiʔ | a-βiʔ-i | ɐ-βiʔ-i | a-βiʔ-i |
moon | *wi[ɾ]o:N | wijõ: | |||
fly (n.) | *wɑ:ʔ[s]iɾ | wɑ:tĩ | βa:ʔɾi-ni | ||
eel | *wɑ:ɾi[C] | wɑ:ɾĩ | βa:ʔɾi |
High back vowel /*u/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*u | u | u | u | u | |
smoke | *iʔtu[ɾ/j] | iʔkũ | iʔku-ni | ||
daughter | *[i]ɾɑ:muN | ɾɑ:ũ [hk] | ɾa:mu-mi | ||
areca nit | *iju-i | iju-i | |||
sand | *e:ju | e:ju | e:u-i | ||
ripe | *ɐpu | ɐpu | ɐpu-i | ||
knot in wood | *ɐpu | ɐpu | ɐpu-i | ||
mountain/hill | *ɐnu | ɐnu | ɐnu-i | ||
good | *ɐwo:tuʔ | aboru [ac] | ɐβo:kuʔ-i | ||
stone file | *uN | ũ | u-mi | ||
bush/grassland | *uʔ | uʔ | uʔ-pɐʔ-i | ||
salt | *u[ɾ/j] | u- | u-ni | ||
heavy | *umɐɾ | umɐ-ni | uma-nti | ||
theft/steal | *umo:ɾ | umo:jɐn- | umo:r- | ||
netbag | *unɑ:N | unɑ̃: | una:-mi | ||
real/true | *utɐN | -ukɐ-mi | |||
wind | *uw[ɑ:ⁱ] | uwɑ: | |||
pitpit sp. | *uɾɑ: | uɾɑ: | uɾa(:)-i | ||
earthquake | *mɐtuɾ | baruni:a [ac] | mɐku-ni | ||
village | *mɐtuj | βɐɾu- | mɐku-ni | ||
father's sister | *mɑ:mu | mɑ:mu [hk] | ma:mu [hk] | ||
belly | *muʔ | ɐ-muʔ | ɐ-muʔ-i | ||
shoulder | *puN | ɐ-pũ | a-ɸu-mi | ɐ-pu-mi | |
young man | *pumɑ:ɾɑ: | pumɑ:ɾɑ: | puma:ɾa: | ||
die | *put- | puɾ- | puk- | ɸuk- | |
enemy | *nɐmuto: | nɐmuɾo: | |||
grandfather | *nɑ:pu | nɑ:pu | na:pu [hk] | ||
son's wife | *nɑ:puʔ | nɑ:puʔ [hk] | na'ɸaʔ-i [sic] | na:puʔ-i | |
duck sp. | *n[o:]tuN | nuku-mi | |||
bird | *nuN | nũ | nu-mi | nu-mi | nu-mi |
louse | *nuN | nũ | nu-mi | nu-mi | |
root | *(ɐ-)nuʔ | ɐ-nuʔ-i | |||
neck/nape | *num[ɐ] | i-numu-ka-mi | |||
spine | *to:juN | ɐ-ko:ju-mi | a-koju-mi | ||
stone axe | *tuN | kũ | kun-tɐʔ-i | ||
liver | *tuN | a-ʔu-mi | ɐ-ku-mi | ||
thigh/root | *tuʔ | ɐ-ɾuʔ | ɐ-kuʔ-i | ||
fence | *tutuj | kuɾu | kuku-ni | ||
cook in vessel | *tuɾ- | kuɾ- | kuɾ- | ||
flying fox sp. | *susuʔ | tutuʔ | tutuʔ-i | ||
husband | *wɑ:pu | wɑ:pu | βaɸu-ni | βa:pu-i | |
cassowary | *wuje:N | βuke-mi | βuje:-mi | ||
dark | *juN | jũ | |||
seed/seedling | *juN | ɐ-jũ | ɐ-ju-mi | ||
food | *junɑ:N | junɑ̃: | juna:-mi |
Akuna coalesces root-initial /*u/ with preceding third person singular inalienable possessor /*ɐ-/ to merge with the reflex /o:/ of diphthong /*aᵘ/ (below) (q.v. Frantz: 1974: 31, 2007: 26):
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*(ɐ-)u | ɐ-u | (ɐ-)u | ø-o: | ||
body/skin | *(ɐ-)u | ɐ-u | o:-i | ||
eye | *(ɐ-)u(-tɐN) | ɐ-u | o:-kɐ-mi | ||
younger sister | *(ɐ-)uN | a-u-mi | o:-mi [hk] | ||
egg | *(ɐ-)uɾ | a-u-ndi |
Mid central vowel /*ɐ/ is generally retained as such in all descendants. It is not orthographically distinguished from the reflexes of long low /*ɑ:/ in either Frantz' Ontena or Vincent's Kambaira vocabulary:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*ɐ | ɐ | ɐ <a> | ɐ | ɐ <a> | |
fire/firewood | *itɐ | iɾɐ | ikɐ-i | ika | |
bow | *isɐNɾɐ | itɐnɐ | isɐndɐ-i | ||
dog | *ijɐN | ijɐ̃ | ika-mi | ijɐ-mi | ijɐ-mi |
white cockatoo | *e:pɐɾ | e:pɐ̃ | e:pɐ(n)-ni | ||
other | *e:[ɾ]nɐ | e:nɐ | e:(n)nɐ | ||
pinkie | *e:ɾɐnɐ | eɾana-mi | e:ɾɐnɐ-i | ||
ripe | *ɐpu | ɐpu | ɐpu-i | ||
knot in wood | *ɐpu | ɐpu | ɐpu-i | ||
bamboo | *ɐnɐ | ɐnɐ | ɐnɐ | ||
leaf | *ɐnɑ: | ɐnɑ: | ɐna(:)-i | ||
woman | *ɐnɑ:si | ɐnɑ:ti | anai | ɐna:ti | anasi |
big/older | *ɐno:[ɾ/j] | ɐnõ: | ɐno:-ni | ||
mountain/hill | *ɐnu | ɐnu | ɐnu-i | ||
good | *ɐwo:tuʔ | aboru [ac] | ɐβo:kuʔ-i | ||
excrement | *ɐɾɐ | ɐɾɐ | ɐɾɐ-i | ||
intestines | *ɐɾɐʔ | ɐɾɐʔ | ɐɾɐʔ-i | aɾaʔ-i | |
hit/fight/kill | *ɐɾu- | ɐɾu- | ɐɾ- | ||
ear | *ɑ:ʔ-tɐN | i-aʔa-mi | a:kɐ-mi | ||
girl | *ɑ:tiNsɐ | ɑ:ɾintɐ | a:kintɐ-i | asika-mi | |
cloud | *ɐjo:[ɾ/j] | ɐjõ: | ɐjo-ni | ||
yam | *o:wɐ | o:wɐ | o:βɐ-i | ||
door | *o:Njɐ | o:nɐ | ondi-mi | o:nɐ | |
heavy | *umɐɾ | umɐ-ni | uma-nti | ||
real/true | *utɐN | -ukɐ-mi | |||
snake | *me:mɐɾ | a-mema-ndi | me:mɐ-ni | memɐ-ni | |
shadow/soul | *mɐN | ɐ-mɐ-mi | |||
meat/flesh | *mɐʔ | a-maʔ-i | ɐ-mɐʔ-i | ||
one | *mɐnɑ: | mɐnɑ: | mɐna: | mana | |
earth/ground | *mɐtɐ | βɐɾɐ | mɐkɐ | maka-mi | |
earthquake | *mɐtuɾ | baruni:a [ac] | mɐku-ni | ||
village | *mɐtuj | βɐɾu- | mɐku-ni | ||
fat/grease | *mɐsɐwe:N | mɐtɐmẽ: | masame-mi | βɐsɐpe:-mi | βasaβe-mi |
old (person) | *pe:jɐN | pe:jɐ̃ | pe:jɐ-mi | ||
younger brother | *pɐʔ | ɸaʔ-i | pɐʔ-i | ||
place | *-pɐʔ | -pɐʔ | -pɐʔ-i | ||
arrow sp. | *pɐto:ɾ | pɐko:-ni | ɸako | ||
vine/rope | *nɐɾ | ɐ-nɐ̃ | nɐ-ni | ||
kunai grass | *nɐm[u]ʔ | nɐmiʔ-i | |||
sore | *nɐmo:N | namani | nɐmo:-mi | ||
enemy | *nɐmuto: | nɐmuɾo: | |||
coconut | *nɐwi[ɾ/j] | nɐβi-ni | |||
casuarina sp. | *nɐɾe:N | nɐɾe:-mi | |||
fruit | *tɐN | ɐ-kɐ-mi | |||
at/on/upon | *-tɐʔ | -ɾɐʔ | -kɐʔ-i | ||
leg | *(ɐ-)tɐɾ | ɐ-ɾɐ̃ | ɐ-kɐ(n)-ni | ||
three | *tɐmo:ɾ[e:] | aβuɾi-mi | kɐmoɾe: | ||
tree kangaroo | *tɐ[ʔ]we:nɐC | aβena-mi | kɐβe:na-mi | kɐʔβe:na-nti | |
frog | *tɐw[ɐ][ɾ/j] | aβu-ndi | kɐβɐ-ni | ||
grandmother | *tɑ:tɐ | aʔa-mi | ka:kɐ | ||
cloud(s) | *to:nɐN | kona [ec] | ko:nɐ-mi | kona-mi | |
tooth | *wɐj | i-βa-ndi | ɐ-βɐ-ni | a-βa-ja-mi | |
man | *wɑ:ⁱNsɐ | wɑ:ntɐ | βa:ntɐ | βanta-mi | |
taro | *jɐN | jɐ-mi | |||
bone | *jɐNpɐ | ɐ-jɐmpɐ | ɐ-jɐmpɐ-i | a-japa-mi | |
ground oven | *jɐno:N | jɐnõ: |
In one example where initial /*ɐ/ is followed by palatal non-stop /*j/, it is fronted and raised to /i/ in Akuna:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*ɐ/_j | ɐ | i | |||
long/tall | *ɐjɑ:ʔ | ɐjɑ:ʔ | ija:ʔ-i |
Akuna coalesces root-initial /*ɐ/ with preceding third person singular inalienable possessor /*ɐ-/ to merge with the fronted reflex of long low central vowel /*ɑ:/ (below.) In Agarabi, the possessor is dropped without apparent effect:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*ɐ-ɐ | ø-ɐ | ø-a: | ? <a> | ||
head | *ɐʔno:N | ɐʔnõ: | a:ʔno:-mi | aʔno-mi |
Long mid front vowel /*e:/ is retained as such in all descendants:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*e: | e: | e: <e> | e: | e: <e> | |
banana | *e:ʔ | e:ʔ-i | |||
white cockatoo | *e:pɐɾ | e:pɐ̃ | e:pɐ(n)-ni | ||
other | *e:[ɾ]nɐ | e:nɐ | e:(n)nɐ | ||
pinkie | *e:ɾɐnɐ | eɾana-mi | e:ɾɐnɐ-i | ||
yes | *e:[j]o: | e:jo: | e:jo: | ||
sand | *e:ju | e:ju | e:u-i | ||
armpit | *ɑ:ʔpe:[N/ɾ] | -a'ɸendi | a:ʔpe:-mi | ||
snake | *me:mɐɾ | a-mema-ndi | me:mɐ-ni | memɐ-ni | |
tail | *me:j | ɐ-me: | a-me-ndi | ɐ-me:-ni | |
hawk | *me:mo:ɾ | memo-ni | me:mo:-ni | ||
fat/grease | *mɐsɐwe:N | mɐtɐmẽ: | masame-mi | βɐsɐpe:-mi | βasaβe-mi |
early/before | *pe:j | pe: | pe:-ni | ||
old (person) | *pe:jɐN | pe:jɐ̃ | pe:jɐ-mi | ||
casuarina sp. | *nɐɾe:N | nɐɾe:-mi | |||
blood | *nɑ:ɾe: | nɑ:ɾe: | na:ɾe:-i | ||
tree kangaroo | *tɐ[ʔ]we:nɐC | aβena-mi | kɐβe:na-mi | kɐʔβe:na-nti | |
cassowary | *wuje:N | βuke-mi | βuje:-mi |
Long mid back vowel /*o:/ is retained as such in all descendants:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*o: | o: | o: <o> | o: | o: <o> | |
brother-in-law | *ito: | iɾo: [hk] | ɐ-iʔo-mi | ko: [hk] | |
cold | *ijo:[N] | ijõ: | ijono-mi | ||
yes | *e:[j]o: | e:jo: | e:jo: | ||
big/older | *ɐno:[ɾ/j] | ɐnõ: | ɐno:-ni | ||
head | *ɐʔno:N | ɐʔnõ: | a:ʔno:-mi | aʔno-mi | |
good | *ɐwo:tuʔ | aboru [ac] | ɐβo:kuʔ-i | ||
cloud | *ɐjo:[ɾ/j] | ɐjõ: | ɐjo-ni | ||
mouth | *o: | o:-o: | j-o-mi | ||
pitpit sp. | *o:N | õ: | o:-mi | ||
face | *o:ɾ | o:-ni | |||
ditch/drain | *o:[ɾ/j] | õ: | o:-ni | ||
stone | *o:[ɾ/j] | õ: | o:-ni | ||
yam | *o:wɐ | o:wɐ | o:βɐ-i | ||
door | *o:Njɐ | o:nɐ | ondi-mi | o:nɐ | |
theft/steal | *umo:ɾ | umo:jɐn- | umo:ɾ- | ||
heart | *mɑ:po:N | ɐ-mɑ:põ: | a-maɸo-mi | ||
hawk | *me:mo:ɾ | memo-ni | me:mo:-ni | ||
arrow sp. | *pɐto:ɾ | pɐko:-ni | ɸako | ||
father | *po: | ɐ-po:-ʔe: | ɸo-ʔi-mi | po:-i | |
thumb | *po:N | a-ɸo-mi | ɐ-po:-mi | ||
pig | *po:ɾ | põ: | po-ndi | po:(n)-ni | ɸo-nti |
sore | *nɐmo:N | namani [sic] | nɐmo:-mi | ||
enemy | *nɐmuto: | nɐmuɾo: | |||
older sister | *nɑ:no: | nɑ:no:-ʔe: [hk] | na:no:-i | ||
mother | *no: | ɐ-no:-ʔe: | no-ʔi-mi | no:-i | |
water | *no:N | nõ: | no:-mi | ||
three | *tɐmo:ɾ[e:] | aβuɾi-mi (?) | kɐmoɾe: | ||
native bean | *to:ʔ | ko:ʔ-i | |||
cloud(s) | *to:nɐN | kona [ec] | ko:nɐ-mi | kona-mi | |
spine | *to:juN | ɐ-ko:ju-mi | a-koju-mi | ||
small | *siʔso:ʔ | tsito:ʔ | |||
moon | *wi[ɾ]o:N | wijõ: | |||
ground oven | *jɐno:N | jɐnõ: |
Long low central vowel /*ɑ:/ is fronted to [a:] in at least Akuna and Ontena. It is not orthographically distinguished from mid central /ɐ/ in either Franz' Ontena or Vincent's Kambaira:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*ɑ: | ɑ: | a: <a> | a: | a: <a> | |
bowstring | *iʔnɑ:N | itna [ac] | iʔna:-mi | ||
daughter | *[i]ɾɑ:muN | ɾɑ:ũ [hk] | ɾa:mu-mi | ||
leaf | *ɐnɑ: | ɐnɑ: | ɐna(:)-i | ||
woman | *ɐnɑ:si | ɐnɑ:ti | anai | ɐna:ti | anasi |
long/tall | *ɐjɑ:ʔ | ɐjɑ:ʔ | ija:ʔ-i | ||
rain | *ɑ:ʔ | ɑ:ʔ | a:ʔ-i | ||
ear | *ɑ:ʔ | ɑ:ʔ-tɐɾe: | i-aʔa-mi | a:kɐ-mi | |
sun | *ɑ:ʔ | ɑ:ʔ-(ɐ-u) | a:ʔ-(ɑ:mɐ-mi) | ||
path | *ɑ:j | a [ac] | a:-ni | a-mi | |
armpit | *ɑ:ʔpe:[N/ɾ] | -a'ɸendi | a:ʔpe:-mi | ||
girl | *ɑ:tiNsɐ | ɑ:ɾintɐ | a:kintɐ-i | asika-mi | |
netbag | *unɑ:N | unɑ̃: | una:-mi | ||
pitpit sp. | *uɾɑ: | uɾɑ: | uɾa(:)-i | ||
one | *mɐnɑ: | mɐnɑ: | mɐna: | mana | |
law/instruction | *mɑ:N | mɑ̃: | |||
house | *mɑ:ʔ | mɑ:ʔ | maʔ-i | ma:ʔ-i | |
father's sister | *mɑ:mu | mɑ:mu [hk] | ma:mu [hk] | ||
heart | *mɑ:po:N | ɐ-mɑ:põ: | a-maɸo-mi | ||
brother's wife | *… | mɑ:ti [hk] | make-mi | ma:ti [hk] | |
chin/jaw | *mɑ:ɾiɾ | i-mai-ndi | |||
young man | *pumɑ:ɾɑ: | pumɑ:ɾɑ: | puma:ɾa: | ||
breast | *nɑ:N | nɑ̃: | na-mi | na:-mi | na-mi |
nest | *nɑ:N | ɐ-na:-mi | a-na-mi | ||
wife | *nɑ:ʔ | naʔ [hk] | naʔ-i | na:ʔ-i | |
grandfather | *nɑ:pu | nɑ:pu | na:pu [hk] | ||
son's wife | *nɑ:puʔ | nɑ:puʔ [hk] | na'ɸaʔ-i | na:puʔ-i | |
older sister | *nɑ:no: | nɑ:no:-ʔe: [hk] | na:no:-i | ||
blood | *nɑ:ɾe: | nɑ:ɾe: | na:ɾe:-i | ||
two | *tɑ:N | kɑ̃: | aŋ-ka-ndi | ka:n-tɐ-ni | |
grandmother | *tɑ:tɐ | aʔa-mi | ka:kɐ | ||
older brother | *wɑ:(-wɐ) | wɑ:-ʔe: [hk] | βa-βa-mi | βa:-i | |
ghost | *wɑ:N | wɑ̃: | βa:-mi | ||
husband | *wɑ:pu | wɑ:pu | βaɸu-ni | βa:pu-i | |
testicle(s) | *wɑ:N-tɐN | a-wanka [ec] | |||
fly (n.) | *wɑ:ʔ[s]iɾ | wɑ:tĩ | βa:ʔɾi-ni | ||
eel | *wɑ:ɾi[C] | wɑ:ɾĩ | βa:ʔɾi | ||
speech/word | *wɑ:jɑ:j | wɑ:jɑ: | βa:ja:-ni | ||
arm/hand | *jɑ:N | i-ka-mi | ɐ-ja:-mi | ||
sugarcane | *jɑ:ʔ | jɑ:ʔ-i | ja:ʔ-i | ||
tree | *jɑ:j | jɑ: | ja:-ni | ja-mi | |
food | *junɑ:N | junɑ̃: | juna:-mi |
When root-initial /*ɑ:/ is preceded by third person singular inalienable possessor /*ɐ-/, the possessor is dropped in Agarabi and in Akuna without apparent effect:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*ɐ-ɑ: | ø-ɑ: | ø-a: | |||
ear | *(ɐ-)ɑ:ʔ | ɑ:ʔ-tɐɾe: | a:kɐ-mi |
Diphthong /*ɐⁱ/ is merged with mid central vowel /ɐ/ in Agarabi and Akuna:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*ɐⁱ | ɐ | ɐⁱ | ɐ | ɐⁱ | |
rat | *wɐⁱ | βaⁱ-mi | βɐ-i | βɐⁱ |
Diphthong /*ɐᵘ/ is merged with long mid back vowel /o:/ in Agarabi and in Akuna:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*ɐᵘ | o: | ɐᵘ | o: | ɐᵘ | |
joint | *ɐᵘN | o:-mi | |||
new/raw | *ɐᵘwɐjɐN | o:ẽ: ≈ ɐᵘjẽ: | o:jɐ-mi | ɐᵘβe-mi | |
navel | *[ɐ]ʔwɐᵘN | ɐ-ʔwõ: | i-ʔβɐᵘŋ-ku-mi | ɐ-ʔβɐŋ-ku-mi | |
mother's br. | *nɐᵘ | no:- [hk] | nɐᵘ-ni | ||
side | *tɐᵘ | ɐ-ɾo: | ɐ-ko:-sɐʔ-i | ||
rib | *tɐᵘ-j[ɑ:]N | a-ʔa-sa-mi | ɐ-ko:-jɐ-mi | ||
knee | *tɐᵘN | ɐ-ɾõ: | |||
star | *wɐjɐᵘ | βɐjo: | |||
hair/feather | *jɐᵘ | ɐ-jo: | (ʔi)-kaᵘ-mi | (ɐ)-jo:-i | ɐ-jaᵘ-mi |
In several words with vowels known to continue West Kainantu /*o:ⁱ/, the vowels are reflected as /e:/ in both Agarabi and Akuna. It's not clear if this change affected North Kainantu as a whole:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*[o:ⁱ] | e: | e: | |||
throat | *m[o:ⁱ]ɾ | ɐ-mẽ: | ɐ-me:-ni | ||
penis | *p[o:ⁱ] | a-fe [ec] | ɐ-pe: |
… /*ɑ:ⁱ/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Kambaira | Akuna | Ontena | |
*ɑ:ⁱ | ɑ: | a: | a: <a> | ||
calf | *[i]m[ɑ:ⁱ][ʔ]- | ɐ-ma:ʔ-i | |||
wind | *uw[ɑ:ⁱ] | uwɑ: | |||
man | *wɑ:ⁱNsɐ | wɑ:ntɐ | βa:ntɐ | βanta-mi |
Akuna /βa:ntɐ/ “man” becomes /βɐⁱntɐ/ when appearing as the second member of a compound alongside a number of roots in which long /a:/ becomes /ɐ/ in the same environment (Franz 1974: 3-5, 2007: 7-10.)
… contrastive tone …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Akuna | |
body/skin | *u | ɐ̀-ú | |
eye | *u | ɐ̀-ù | |
bird | *nuN | nṹ | |
louse | *nuN | nũ̀ |
Pronouns
North Kainantu nominative pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with Agarabi forms drawn from Goddard (1974: 117) and Akuna from Franz and McKaughan (1964: 86-97, 1973: 440-441):
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Akuna | |
1 sg. | *se:- | te:ʔi | te:-ni |
2 sg. | *e:- | e:ʔi | e:-ni |
3 sg. | *we:- | βe:ʔi | βe:-ni |
1 pl. | *se:- | te: | mɐjɐᵘ-ni |
2 pl. | *iʔte:- | [e:ʔi] | ike:-ni |
3 pl. | *je:- | [βe:ʔi] | je:-ni |
Here and in the object and possessive forms below the distinction between singular and plural pronouns has entirely collapsed in Agarabi, the bases of the second and third person plurals reflecting those of the singulars.
The first person singular is historically identical to the first person plural. The extension of the first person plural to include the singular is an areal grammatical trend which has also affected Afaqina, Tairora and Central Kainantu, but not Waffa, South Kainantu or Kenati on the geographical margins of the Kainantu region.
North Kainantu free object pronouns are reconstructed as follows:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Akuna | |
1 sg. obj. | *se:-N | tẽ: | te:-mi |
2 sg. obj. | *e:-N | ẽ: | e:-mi |
3 sg. obj. | *we:-N | βẽ: | βe:-mi |
1 pl. obj. | *se:-N | tẽ: | mɐjɐᵘ-ni (?) |
2 pl. obj. | *iʔte:-N | [ẽ:] | ike:-mi |
3 pl. obj. | *je:-N | [βẽ:] | je:-mi |
North Kainantu inalienable possessors and verbal objects are reconstructed as follows, with Agarabi forms drawn from Goddard (1974: 110-111, cf. Capell 1948-1949: 111-114) and Akuna from Frantz and McKaughan (1964: 86-87, 1973: 440-441, Frantz 1973: 429):
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Akuna | |
1 sg. poss. | *si- | ti- | ti- |
2 sg. poss. | *ɐ- | ɐ- | ɐ- |
3 sg. poss. | *ɐ- | ɐ- | ɐ- |
1 pl. poss. | *si- | ti- | ti- |
2 pl. poss. | [*ji-] | [ɐ-] | ji- |
3 pl. poss. | *ji- | [ɐ-] | ji- |
Historically, the second and third person plural possessors/objects were distinct from one another, from West Kainantu /*i-/ and /*ji-/ respectively.
Alienable possessors are derived by the suffixation of /*-iʔ/ …:
North Kainantu | Agarabi | Akuna | |
1 sg. poss. | *…- | te:-t-iʔ | |
2 sg. poss. | *…- | ||
3 sg. poss. | *…- | βe:-iʔ | |
1 pl. poss. | *…- | te:-t-iʔ | |
2 pl. poss. | *…- | ||
3 pl. poss. | *…- | [βe:-iʔ] |
Verbal morphology
[under construction]
…
Loans from East Kainantu and from Kamano
Akuna and especially Kambaira have borrowed a number of basic terms from East Kainantu languages. Here North Tairora of Vaantura and Afaqina (Binumarien) are presented for comparison, with Vaantura attestations drawn from Vincent (2010 ibid.) and Afaqina from Oatridge and Oatridge (1973: 517-522, Bee 1973: 745-759, Kerr 776-795, unattributed n.d.) and Capell (1948-1948: 350-354;) these are contrasted with their native North Kainantu semantic equivalents, several of which are ultimately cognate with the East Kainantu forms:
East Kainantu | Afaqina | Vaantura | Kambaira | Akuna | North Kainantu | |
nose | *ipi | ɐ-ik:i | ɐ-iʔi | a-iʔ-i | *siʔ | |
old woman | *ɐjo:[ʔn/Nt]ɐ | ɐso:ʔɐ | kontɐ | ɐso:ʔ-i | ? | |
animal/game | *ɑ:ʔnɐᵘ | ɑ:ntɐᵘ | ɑ:ntɐᵘ | andaᵘ-mi | ? | |
moon | *[u]to:nɐ | uʔo:nɐ | toɾɐ | iko:nɐ | *wi[ɾ]o:N | |
heart | *muNtujɐ | muʔusɐ | muntukɐ | a-muʔu-ndi | ɐ-muku-ni | *mɑ:po:N |
bone | *muʔjɑ:ni | muʔtɑ:ni | βuhɑ:ɾi | i-muka-mi | *jɐmpɐ | |
lip(s) | *[m/w]ɐᵘɾu | ɸɐᵘɾu | mɐᵘɾu | i-βau-ndi | ? | |
knee | *to:ɾi | ɐ-ʔo:ɾi | toɾi | i-ʔo-ndi | ɐ-ko:-ni | *tɐᵘN |
blood | *wiʔ[t]ipɐ | ɸiʔtik:ɐ | βitiʔ-i | *nɑ:ɾe: | ||
eye | *wu | ɐ-ɸu | (ɐ)-βu | i-βu-mi | *u |
Agarabi and Ontena have borrowed some basic terms from Kamano of the Goroka family to the west, with Kamano-Kafe' attestations drawn from Payne (2007):
Goroka | Kamano | Agarabi | Ontena | North Kainantu | |
star | *o:pu | ofu | oɸu | oɸu | *wɐjɐᵘ |